2/20/25

1. Summer Camps
2. Science-related Events
3. Greek and Latin Roots
4. Important Points We Discussed
   1. Independent Learning
   2. Genetics
      1. Punnett Squares
      2. Genotypes & Phenotypes
      3. Recessive & Dominant Traits
      4. Characteristics of Recessive Genes
      5. Characteristics of Dominant Genes
      6. Family Trees
   3. Units
   4. Temperatures
   5. Boiling vs. Evaporation
   6. Imaging Techniques
   7. Bone Growth
   8. Fractures
5. Details of Things We Discussed
   1. Punnett Squares
      1. Family Trees
      2. Deriving the Temperature Conversion Formula
      3. Imaging
      4. Anatomy of a Long Bone
      5. Describing Fractures
   2. Complete Description of a Fracture
      1. Bone Age
6. Things To Do

You can find a list of posts from previous science clubs here.

Summer Camps

Here is a link to STEM-related Camps in mid-Missouri this summer. It is not too early to begin planning what you will be doing this summer. Registration for many of the camps has already begun. However, some links may still be from last year because websites haven’t been updated yet.

Science-related Events

Here is a link to upcoming science-related events in mid-Missouri. I try to update this each month.

Greek and Latin Roots

Here is the list of words with Greek and Latin roots for this week is the same as last week.

Here is a link to all of the Greek and Latin roots we have discussed.

Greek and Latin Roots

Test your memory of the Greek and Latin roots that we have discussed with this quiz.

This is the link to the Wikipedia list of Greek and Latin roots.

Important Points We Discussed

Independent Learning

• You have to be intentional about learning.
• You have to figure out what the main points that are being taught are and understand those points.
• When the teacher gives you “learning objectives”, they are pointing out the main points you need to know.

Genetics

Punnett Squares

• A Punnett square is a simple way to illustrate the different combinations of genes that can be passed down from parents to offspring.

Genotypes & Phenotypes

• A genotype is determined by the genes that an organism has. This information is invisible without genetic testing.
• A phenotype is determined by the way that an organism looks or behaves.

Recessive & Dominant Traits

• A recessive gene is one that only shows up in the phenotype when there is two copies of the gene.
• A dominant gene shows up in the phenotype even if there is only one copy of the gene.

Characteristics of Recessive Genes

• If two parents each have a single copy of a recessive gene, then:
  • 50% of the offspring are expected to be carriers
  • 25% are expected to have two copies of the recessive gene
• The children can have disease, even though the parents do not.

Characteristics of Dominant Genes

• It only takes one parent having the gene for it to show up in the offspring.
  • 50% of the offspring will be expected to have the disease
  • There are no carriers.
• One parent will have the disease.

Family Trees

• Family trees can be used to determine if a gene is dominant or recessive.

Units

• Converting between units is a fundamental skill for all areas of science and engineering.
• You should be very familiar with converting between metric units using the powers of 10 indicated by the following prefixes:

kilo-	1000
centi-	1/100
milli-	1/1000

• You should also know at least one conversion from metric to imperial units for each quantity.

Quantity	Metric	Imperial
Length	2.54 cm	1 inch
Length	1.6 km	1 mile
Mass	1 kg	2.2 lb
Volume	1 L	1.06 quarts (it’s good enough to know 1 L is just slightly more than 1 quart.)

• You need to know common conversions between different imperial units:
  • 1 mile = 5280 ft
  • 1 yard = 3 ft
  • 1 ft = 12 inches
  • 1 lb = 16 oz
  • 1 ton = 2000 lb
  • 1 gallon = 4 quarts
  • 1 quart = 2 pints

Temperatures

• Conversion between Fahrenheit and Celsius is different than other conversions because 0 F is not 0 Celcius. (Unlike other conversions such as 0 kg = 0 lb).
• Because of this, the formula for most conversions has the form y = mx, but for temperature, the form is y = mx + b.
• You should understand the logic of how to derive the equation to convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit:
  • Start with y = mx + b. There are two variables, so you need two bits of information.
  • Those two bits are the freezing point of water (0 C = 32 F) and the boiling point of water (100 C = 212 F).
  • The freezing point gives you b.
  • The slope comes from difference in F degrees / difference in C degrees as you go from freezing to boiling.

Boiling vs. Evaporation

• Evaporation is the changing of a liquid into a gas. This can occur at any temperature; however, it occurs faster at higher temperatures.
• Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid is the same as the atmospheric pressure. This occurs at a specific temperature.

Imaging Techniques

• X-rays are taken by having an x-ray source on one side of the body and an x-ray detector on the other side. The x-rays are blocked by more dense materials such as bone and metal.
• A CT image is created by combining the information from multiple x-ray images inside a computer to make a 3-dimensional image.
• An MRI image is created using stimulating hydrogen atoms to emit a radio signal which is then detected. There is a lot of hydrogen in water and fat and these are easily imaged. There is relatively less hydrogen in bone, but MRI does not show bone as well as a CT scan.

Bone Growth

• Bones calcify slowly as we age, and therefore young children have some bones that do not show up on x-ray because they are not calcified yet. This allows us to estimate the age of the person getting the x-ray.
• Bones grow at the growth plate. Once the growth plates have fused, bones do not grow any more.

Fractures

• There are many different ways to describe a fracture. These include:
  • “Geometry” of the fracture
  • “Alignment” of the fracture
  • “Mechanism” of the fracture

Details of Things We Discussed

Punnett Squares

This is an illustration of using a Punnett square where G is the dominant trait. It shows that 50% of the offspring will have the green pod phenotype and 50% will have the yellow pod phenotype.

Family Trees

This is a family tree for a genetic disease with dominant inheritance.

Deriving the Temperature Conversion Formula

• The conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit is linear. (It would be weird for it to be anything other than linear.)
• But the line doesn’t go through the origin. (This makes it weird enough among unit conversions.)
• Therefore, it has the form y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Here, y is degrees Fahrenheit and x is degrees Celsius.
• Since there are two unknowns (m and b), we need two bits of information. These are the freezing and boiling points of water.
• 0 C = 32 F, so the y-intercept, b, is 32.
• The slope, m, is calculated from rise/run. In this case, to get from the freezing point to the boiling point, we go up 180 degrees Fahrenheit at the same time we go over 100 degrees Celsius.
• Therefore, the slope is 180/100 which equals 9/5.
• Plugging the slope and y-intercept into the equation gives us: F = 9/5 C + 32.
• To find the equation to convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, we solve for C in the equation above.

Imaging

Medical imaging (Basic science review)

Anatomy of a Long Bone

Many of the anatomical features are described in relation to the grow plates (physis).

Physis (Growth Plate) – A layer of cartilage found in growing bones, located between the epiphysis and metaphysis. It is responsible for bone growth in length and ossifies as a person matures.

Epiphysis – The rounded end of a long bone, covered with articular cartilage. It is involved in joint articulation and contains spongy bone and red bone marrow.

Apophysis – A bony outgrowth or projection that serves as an attachment site for tendons and ligaments but does not contribute to bone lengthening like the physis.

Diaphysis – The shaft or central part of a long bone, primarily composed of compact bone. It contains the medullary cavity, which houses bone marrow.

Metaphysis – The flared region between the diaphysis and epiphysis. It contains part of the growth plate and is where bone remodeling and growth occur.

Describing Fractures

These are the features that we discussed to look for when looking at imaging of bones.

Type of Image

• X-ray
• CT scan
• MRI

Age

• Very young (bones not calcified or not fused)
• Young (grow plates not closed)
• Adult
• Elderly (thin bones, arthritic changes)

Anatomy

• What part of the body
• What bone
• What part of the bone
  • Proximal end (toward body)
  • Middle (mid-shaft)
  • Distal end (away from body)

Description of the fracture

• Transverse
• Oblique
• Longitudinal
• Impacted
• Spiral
• Comminuted
• Greenstick
• Avulsion
• Torus

Alignment (this is how the bones move after they are broken)

• Angulated
• Displaced/Nondisplaced
• Bayonetted

Joint involvement

• Intra-articular (fracture goes into the joint)
• Extra-articular (fracture does not involve the joint)

Skin integrity

• Open (Compound)
• Closed (Simple)

Cause

• Traumatic
• Osteoporotic
• Pathologic
  • Cancer
  • Infection

Complete Description of a Fracture

Bone Age

Four features that can be used to estimate how old a person is based on their x-ray are:

• What bones are calcified
• Whether their grow plates are fused
• Signs of joint damage from arthritis
• Thinning of bones from osteoporosis

Very young children have bones with no calcium in them, so these bones do not show up on x-ray.

As the child ages, these bones become calcified in a specific sequence that allows you to estimate their age.

The ends of the bones become visible and you can see their grow plates.

Eventually, the growth plates fuse and all bones are calcified.

As an adult continues to age, the joints begin to show signs of wear and tear and their bones become thinner as they develop osteoporosis. The speed at which this happens varies a lot from people to people. The best you can say is that this is the x-ray of an “old person”.

Things To Do

1. Fill out the list of Greek and Latin roots.
   • Determine the roots in the example word.
   • Write in the meaning of each root.
   • Give at least one example of another word that shares the same root, be prepared to give its actual definition and the way that it is related to the root word.
2. Presentation
   • Research your topic of choice and be prepared to give a 5-minute presentation on the topic, geared toward people your age level.
   • Include the background information needed for someone who does not know the topic as well as you.
   • Be prepared to talk about how you found this information.

Next time we will meet on 2/27/25.